Use of unmanned aircraft has surged in countries across Africa, often resulting in mass civilian deaths, new report finds. The use of drones by several African countries in their fight against armed groups is causing significant harm to civilians, according to a new report. More than 943 civilians have been killed in at least 50 incidents across six African countries from November 2021 to November 2024, according to the report by Drone Wars UK. The report, titled Death on Delivery, reveals that strikes regularly fail to distinguish between civilians and combatants in their operations. Experts told Al Jazeera that the death toll is likely only the tip of the iceberg because many countries run secretive drone campaigns. As drones rapidly become the weapon of choice for governments across the continent, what are the consequences for civilians in conflict zones? Is it time for the world to regulate the sale of drones? The report highlights how the number of African nations acquiring armed drones, specifically Medium Altitude, Long Endurance (MALE) drones, has increased dramatically in recent years. Since 2022, at least 10 African countries have obtained these weapons with governments justifying their purchases as a means to combat rebellions and security threats. However, the reality on the ground has often been different with many strikes leading to mass civilian casualties, raising concerns about human rights violations. Cora Morris, the report’s author, said drones have been marketed as an “efficient” and modern way to conduct warfare with minimal risk to military personnel. But in reality, that’s not always true as civilian casualties have mounted. Morris said drones “significantly lower the threshold for the use of force, making it much easier for armies to deploy munitions without risk to their own forces”. “The result of this has been a grave civilian toll,” she told Al Jazeera. The proliferation of drones has also been fuelled by geopolitical shifts as African governments seek greater military self-reliance and turn to new suppliers willing to sell without stringent conditions. Michael Spagat, head of the department of economics at Royal Holloway University of London, sees the trend as primarily driven by economics. “Buying drones has become a cheap way for states to acquire significant firepower. Drones have the additional advantage that attackers don’t have to worry about pilots getting killed,” Spagat told Al Jazeera. “You don’t have to invest in training people you might lose.” He also said this trend is likely just at its beginning. “Some countries may still be getting up to speed on the use of their drones, and at some point, we’ll start hearing about nonstate groups using potent drones,” he warned. “These are still fairly advanced technologies, but I doubt it will stay like this forever,” he added. While the report primarily examines the consequences of the use of drones in Africa, it also touches on the key suppliers fuelling this surge. Turkiye, China and Iran have emerged as the dominant exporters, the report found, and supply a range of drone systems to African nations. Morris said the role of actors like Turkiye and China, which have been willing to supply drones “relatively cheaply with little concern for how they are to be used”, means that these weapons have proliferated rapidly in the past few years, particularly to states fighting armed groups. The report identifies six key nations where the use of drones has had a particularly deadly impact: Sudan Drones have been used extensively in Sudan’s ongoing civil war with reports of strikes hitting civilian infrastructure, including markets and residential areas. Both warring sides – Sudan’s military and its Rapid Support Forces paramilitary group – have used drones. Somalia The country has long been a battleground for drone warfare, primarily driven by operations targeting al-Qaeda affiliate al-Shabab. However, civilian deaths have been alarmingly frequent, raising concerns over the precision and intelligence behind these strikes. The United States military’s Africa Command has conducted hundreds of air strikes in Somalia that it said targeted al-Shabab fighters but also ended up killing civilians in so-called collateral damage. Nigeria The Nigerian government has employed drones in its fight against Boko Haram and other armed groups. Yet there have been multiple instances of strikes on civilians, including in December 2023 when a drone attack hit a group of people observing a Muslim celebration in Tudun Biri in Kaduna State. Burkina Faso Conflict in Burkina Faso began to intensify around 2015 as armed group activity spilled over from neighbouring Mali. It is part of a wider regional crisis in the Sahel. Mali Both Mali and Burkina Faso have ramped up their use of drones against armed groups. But these strikes have repeatedly resulted in civilian casualties. Ethiopia The Ethiopian government has increasingly relied on drones in its fight against the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF). Multiple strikes on refugee camps and marketplaces have led to widespread condemnation. Human rights organisations and the United Nations have decried the lack of accountability. The impact has been devastating with several strikes leading to significant losses of civilian lives. Among the most tragic incidents documented in the report are: Morris said there is “an obvious unwillingness to properly investigate claims of civilian casualties”, adding that “the mounting scale of civilian harm worldwide betrays a wholesale failure to take seriously the loss of civilian life. “This is altogether more brazen where the use of drones is concerned with a concerning normalisation of civilian death accompanying their proliferation,” she said. The report emphasises the urgent need for greater oversight and regulation of drone use amid a rapid expansion of drone warfare worldwide. In the past 10 years, the number of countries operating drones has gone up from four to 48, according to the report. It said three main international arms control agreements currently apply to the export of armed drones but they all have “significant weaknesses”. In its recommendations, the report’s author urged the international community to move rapidly towards establishing a new international control regime focused on the prevention of harm arising from the proliferation of armed uncrewed systems. Morris and Spagat agreed that drone warfare is only going to expand. “I do think that the use of drones is going to grow quite substantially and possibly proliferate to nonstate groups,” Spagat said. Follow Al Jazeera English:...

Professor of Public Health and Epidemiology at the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Prof. Aisha Abubakar, tells AJIBADE OMAPE about the recent outbreak of diphtheria in various states across the country and how the government can sensitise the public to preventive measures for this infectious disease Can you explain what diphtheria is and why it poses a significant health threat, especially in Nigeria? Diphtheria is a vaccine-preventable disease and it is one of the diseases that routine immunisation protects against in Nigeria as part of the pentavalent vaccine. Diphtheria is a respiratory infection. Although it can affect other organs, it is caused by bacteria and is related to the development of a pseudomembrane in the throat, which leads to difficulty in breathing. The bacteria may also produce a toxin that can affect the heart and other organs. What factors contributed to the outbreak in states like Lagos, Kano, Yobe, Katsina, and the FCT? If you look at the statistics from the Nigerian Centre for Disease Control in most of these five states, Kano State is the lead state with the highest number of cases. Yobe, Kano, and a host of other northern states are responsible for over 90 per cent of the cases. I think the Lagos State case gained media attention because it occurred in a secondary school, which received a lot of media coverage. Essentially, most of the states that have reported diphtheria have not just been affected this year. This outbreak began about two years ago and is still showing no signs of abating. Diphtheria is a vaccine-preventable disease and, if you look at the statistics from the NCDC, you’ll find that most of the children or people affected have not completed their vaccination with the diphtheria vaccine. The diphtheria vaccine is part of the pentavalent vaccine, and the toxoid is given as part of this vaccine to children. So, most of those who got infected were not vaccinated. For vaccine-preventable diseases, some vaccines are available, but sometimes people do not use them due to fears of side effects, misconceptions about the safety of the vaccines, and a host of other reasons. How severe is this outbreak compared to previous ones? Well, the numbers are still being assessed from the initial outbreak. So, I don’t have the data for the current outbreak. They are counting the cases from the first ones. Essentially, you can’t say how serious it is, but I can tell you that last year, more cases were reported than this year. However, it is still early in the year, so maybe it’s too soon to compare this year’s cases with last year’s. What demographic groups are most at risk? Generally, children are more affected, as well as the elderly who are over 60 years old. However, those who are not vaccinated, regardless of age, can also be affected by the outbreak. What proactive measures should the Nigerian government and health agencies put in place to prevent future outbreaks of diphtheria? The main thing is to conduct risk communication so that people know which groups are susceptible and to mount a vaccination campaign. The vaccination campaign should target vulnerable groups, particularly children under five years old and the elderly. Children should be the primary focus for the vaccination campaign. How effective is vaccination in controlling the spread, and what percentage of the population needs to be immunised for herd immunity? I don’t have the exact details, but usually, a particular percentage of the population needs to be immunised to prevent an outbreak, which is called herd immunity. Around 75-80% of the population needs to be vaccinated for herd immunity. As I mentioned earlier, diphtheria is a vaccine-preventable disease. The vaccine must have passed through the entire chain and not been compromised in any way. It is very effective in preventing infection, which is why it is included in routine immunisation in Nigeria. Given Nigeria’s challenges with vaccine hesitancy, misinformation, and access to healthcare, how can vaccination coverage be improved? To improve vaccine coverage, you must create demand for the vaccine. There must be a lot of risk communication and campaigning to ensure people understand the relationship between vaccination and being free of disease. If you mount an effective campaign, people will be more willing to get their children vaccinated. Despite misconceptions, there should be a sensitisation programme to inform people that these vaccines are life-saving and can protect their children from infection. What immediate steps should affected states take to curb the spread of diphtheria? Affected states should mount massive immunisation campaigns and vaccination drives. Additionally, there should be training for healthcare workers, starting from those at health posts, community health extension workers, and community health officers at primary healthcare facilities, to doctors and nurses in secondary and tertiary facilities. This training should focus on recognising cases early and providing appropriate treatment. This is crucial because, with diphtheria, early recognition and treatment with antibiotics, as well as administering the toxoid, can prevent severe outcomes in affected individuals. Are our hospitals and healthcare facilities adequately equipped to handle outbreaks of infectious diseases like this? It depends on the infectious disease in question. For diphtheria, one of the complications is that it can cause difficulty in breathing, and if that occurs, you may need respirators and ventilators. However, even in some of our tertiary institutions, there are very few ventilators available. So, early detection and administering the toxoid are the best bet before a person experiences respiratory difficulty. Are there gaps in our healthcare facilities when it comes to being adequately equipped, and what gaps need to be addressed to help handle outbreaks of infectious diseases like this? For many infectious diseases, particularly those that can be transmitted from one person to another, it is essential to have isolation facilities. This is not only for diphtheria but also for diseases like measles and Lassa fever. There is a need for well-equipped isolation centres in our healthcare facilities that can be used once there is an outbreak. These centres help prevent the risk of infection for other patients. How important is early detection, and what symptoms should the public look out for to seek medical attention promptly? Early detection is crucial in preventing the spread of diphtheria. Initially, diphtheria can present with symptoms similar to other respiratory infections, such as fever, cough, and swelling of the lymph nodes. It is the characteristic membrane that develops in the throat that clinches the diagnosis, even before samples are taken for testing. It is important to have a high index of suspicion, particularly for those who have had contact with individuals diagnosed with diphtheria. That’s the key to early detection. What are the best treatment options for diphtheria, and how accessible are they in Nigeria? Diphtheria is caused by bacteria, and antibiotics are very useful in treating the infection. Erythromycin and penicillin are commonly used for treatment, and penicillin is given to those who have been in contact with infected individuals. The choice of antibiotics depends on the susceptibility of the bacteria to specific drugs. Do we have enough antibiotics and antitoxins available to treat patients effectively, or do we face a problem of shortages? We have antibiotics available, but there can sometimes be issues with the efficacy of some of them, as many substandard drugs may be circulating in the market. The toxoid is not as readily available as the antibiotics, but it is still available in the country. The key is to have a high index of suspicion, use the right antibiotics, and administer the toxoid to those infected before the disease progresses to severe outcomes. Does diphtheria pose a death risk for people who get infected? It depends on the severity of the infection. Like other vaccine-preventable diseases, diphtheria can present with non-specific symptoms similar to other respiratory diseases. Severe complications, such as difficulty in breathing and damage to the heart and other organs, can lead to fatalities. Currently, in Nigeria, has there been any known recorded case of death or deaths related to diphtheria? Yes, there have been several cases of death across the country. For example, in the recent Lagos outbreak at King’s College, one of the students developed complications and passed away. Other parts of the country have also seen fatalities, although not as many as those from diseases like malaria and Lassa fever. How can other schools and organisations with a large population prevent the same incidents that occurred at King’s College? I think the answer is vaccination! Vaccination! Vaccination! As I mentioned earlier, diphtheria is a vaccine-preventable disease. If children are immunised and mount an immune response, they will be protected against infection. Early detection and treatment are also key because for those who receive antibiotics and the toxoid, complications can be prevented. What long-term policies should the Federal Government adopt to strengthen epidemic preparedness and response to infectious diseases? I think having the NCDC is key. One of the things that can be done to strengthen preparedness for epidemics is to have regional centres that support the NCDC in tackling diphtheria and other diseases. As a researcher in public health and infectious diseases, what recommendations do you have for integrating scientific research into Nigeria’s disease control strategies? The Nigerian Centre for Disease Control runs several programmes, such as the Nigerian Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Programme, which attempts to marry research with fieldwork. People are trained 25% in the classroom and 75% in the field. This can help improve surveillance, epidemic preparedness, and response. How can public health agencies and the media collaborate to raise awareness and educate Nigerians about diphtheria prevention and treatment? Interviews like this are important for raising awareness. Journalists and health professionals must collaborate, starting with basic media channels like radio programmes, television shows, and newspaper articles. In communities where it may be difficult to reach people, radio, especially in local dialects, can be an effective tool for raising awareness. What role do community leaders, religious institutions, and schools play in ensuring better vaccine uptake and public compliance with health guidelines? Community leaders are crucial, particularly in traditional settings. Before launching any programme, it is essential to gain their support. Religious institutions also play a vital role, as they can reach large audiences and encourage vaccination. Health professionals can work with religious institutions to spread the message after services. How does Nigeria’s response to diphtheria compare to global best practices in managing infectious disease outbreaks, and what lessons can we learn from other countries? Vaccine-preventable diseases can occur in both developing and developed countries. For example, the recent measles outbreak in the United States shows that complacency with vaccination can lead to outbreaks. The key takeaway is that vaccination is critical to preventing infections, and Nigeria can learn from these international experiences.

Some parents and members of the Parents and Teachers Association of the Federal Technical College, Yaba, Lagos State, have appealed to the Minister of Education, Tunji Alausa, to intervene in the 140 per cent increase in the PTA levy from N5,000 to N12,000. This is just as they asked the minister to intervene in the activities of the executives of the FTC, Yaba PTA which they claimed was shrouded in secrecy. They expressed their concerns in a letter addressed to the minister, a copy of which was obtained by PUNCH Metro on Tuesday. According to the parents, the increment contradicts their responsibilities as PTA members, which were mainly to support the efforts of the federal government. The letter, which was signed by more than 20 members of the association, highlighted that efforts to get the executive members to account for previous levies had proved abortive. It read, “We write to bring to your attention the content of the circular that emanated from the office of the Permanent Secretary, Federal Ministry of Education (dated 18th and 19th of March of which the content is asked to be brought to Parents attention) stating that the Parent Teacher Association’s approved levy has now been revised to a maximum of N12,000 across all the Federal Unity Colleges. “This increment as stated, was necessitated by the requests for increment by some supposedly School’s Parent Teacher Association executives to enable them to meet up with their purported obligations. The role of the Parent Teacher Association has been identified as that of giving support/helping the school. “There was never a place in the guidelines that mandated the Parent Teacher Association to assume the role of the government/ carry out projects beyond its members’ capacity on behalf of the government (who are the primary owners with complete control/ownership of the school) but rather to assist voluntarily.” They also accuse executive members of allegedly failing to give accounts of financial transactions of the association “Particularly more intriguing is the fact that despite repeated complaints by Parents and their persistent call for the Parent Teacher Association executives to be made accountable to ensure that the funds being contributed by parents in most of these unity colleges towards ensuring the welfare of our children/ teachers are well supported are put into judicious use, the ministry has remained unperturbed by that pressing demand. “The continued call by members contributing the money for accountability and transparency on the amount they are paying at the moment has been met with stiff resistance which the ministry is well aware of. “Federal Technical College Yaba claims to have a staggering 108 part-time teachers under its payroll (which to date the executives haven’t given proof of). These are part of the reasons parents are now questioning how the decisions were arrived at for an over 130 per cent increment instead of calling for proper accountability and judicious use of the levy being collected and are therefore calling for an investigation into this by our ever-dynamic Education Minister.” They urged the Minister of Education to intervene in the abnormalities and the increment. “That is why we are pleading and calling the attention of the Federal government and the Honourable Minister of Education to this crucial matter at hand before it escalates into serious protest across all the schools. “We are pleading with the government to look into this Parent Teacher Association affairs, the illegal increment and proper regulation put in place or scrap it in its entirety as it is now looking more like a scam and an avenue for some executives to enrich themselves and remove their children from the school at the end of their tenure to avoid being probed.” Meanwhile, the spokesperson for the Ministry of Education, Folashade Omoboriowo, told our correspondent that the approved PTA levy is cut across all federal unity schools across the federation. She added that the N12,500 was the maximum fee that any PTA could levy on its members, and any PTA and the fee was not being enforced on any PTA. “We are not forcing any PTA to pay the amount, but it is the maximum that any PTA can charge its members. PTAs can charge below that based on their discretion,” Omoboriowo said. Efforts to get the reaction of the PTA Chairman, FTC, Yaba, Akeem Ibrahim, proved abortive as he did not respond to messages made to his line. Meanwhile, a member of the executive who pleaded anonymity, disclosed to our correspondent in a telephone conversation on Tuesday that the increase was part of efforts to cater for the new minimum wage of the 107 part-time lecturers of the school and also to augment the school management’s expenses on electricity. The source added that the new executive had barely spent six months in office and that the request by the aggrieved parents to explain the financial status of the association has been obliged because a copy of the association’s account has been made available to them. The source said, “These people have continued to blackmail the executive because they wanted to be in that position too, but they failed. We have about 107 part-time teachers whom the PTA is paying their salary, and because of the increase in the minimum wage, we set up a committee to review how we can also increase these part-time teachers’ salaries from N50,000 to N70,000, which was why we increased the levy. “We are barely six months in office and they are asking to audit us. The account statement they requested has been given to them. In the few months that we have spent as executives, we have renovated the school toilets from pit toilets to water closet, but everything we are doing is what they are not pleased with.”